by Reece Jones [originally posted at NACLA]
Border Wars
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| This topic is covered extensively in Reece Jones recent book. |
We live a
world of borders and walls. In addition to the massive and expensive
barrier on long stretches of the U.S.-Mexico border, in the 23 years
since the fall of the Berlin Wall, 26 other new walls and fences have
gone up on political borders around the world. These walls are built by
both totalitarian regimes and democracies, including India, Thailand,
Israel, South Africa, and the European Union. Invariably, the barriers
are justified in the language of security—the country must be protected
from the terrorists, drug cartels, insurgents, or suicide bombers
lurking on the other side.
Despite the external focus of these justifications, in most instances
these walls and fences are actually the result of the internal politics
of the state that builds them. There are three specific reasons for
constructing a border wall: establishing sovereignty over ungoverned or
unruly lands; protecting the wealth of the state and population; and
protecting cultural practices within the state from the possible
influence of other value systems possessed by immigrants. The decision
to build the 664-mile barrier along the U.S.-Mexico border, although
often presented as primarily in response to drug-related violence and
terrorism, is largely due to these internal factors.
The desire to establish clear sovereign authority over the state’s
territory is the first factor that underlies the construction of a
border barrier. Although we often imagine the territorial outline of
countries as sharply drawn lines where the control of one state ends and
another begins, most borders on the ground belie this simplicity. The
idea that borders (or rivers or coastlines) are lines is a convenience
of cartography that is established on the ground many years after a map
is drawn, if at all. The oldest political borders in Europe, for
example, are only a few hundred years old, and most were established
more recently than that. Before the 1600s, most states did not recognize
each other’s sovereign authority over a territory, and the
technological advances in cartography that allowed fixed borders and
territories to be represented had not been achieved. Consequently, even
the simple idea that states have clearly defined territories that are
marked by a linear border is a very recent development.
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| The end of the U.S.-Mexico border fence in California (Photo by Bisayan lady/Flickr) |
The contemporary U.S.-Mexico border was established on maps at the
end of the U.S.-Mexican War by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.1
The war settled which territories the expansion-minded United States
could claim and transferred almost half of Mexico’s territory to the
United- States. The last sections of the border were finalized with the
Gadsden Purchase in 1854, which secured mining rights and a better route
for a railroad connection to California. At the time, the territory was
part of the United States in name only and, despite the enormous land
area, was populated by about 100,000 Mexicans and 200,000 Native
Americans.2 Over the intervening years, sovereign authority
over these lands was established by moving Anglo populations onto the
land and by violently suppressing any resistance. Land surveying,
creating property maps, and the deployment of police forces resignified
the landscape. Yet the line existed on the map and in the population’s
geographic imagination only inchoately, as the practices and
performances of sovereignty slowly inscribed the different territories
onto the landscape.
This process accelerated in the 1990s as funding for border security
increased substantially and the idea of marking the imagined line with a
physical barrier took hold. When the Border Patrol was established in
1924, it was tiny and remained underfunded for decades. In 1992, there
were 3,555 agents at the U.S.-Mexico border, but by 2010 there were over
20,100.3 These changes have both practical and symbolic
effects on the hardening of the border. The additional agents play a
practical enforcement role while the fence project, which passed
Congress in 2006, is much more symbolically significant. Walls and
fences are the most efficient way to mark territorial differences on the
ground because they take the abstract idea of a territory and
materialize it. The construction of the barrier is another step in the
process of reimaging these formerly Native American and Mexican lands as
firmly part of the territory of the United States. By physically
inscribing the line in the landscape, the wall brings the border into
being and visually demonstrates where U.S. territory ends and Mexican
territory begins.
The second internal factor that results in the construction of a wall
or fence on a border is the presence of a poorer country on the other
side. In previous eras, political borders served primarily as either
military defensive lines where one army prevented the movement of
another or as markers of different government regimes where one set of
laws and taxes or one cultural system stopped and another began. Over
the 20th century, the practice of absolute sovereignty over a bounded
territory produced substantial wealth inequalities globally, which
increased the desire of many people to move either to avoid
deteriorating conditions in their home state or to seek better economic
opportunities elsewhere.4 These movements, along with the
possibility of hostile people or items passing into the state, resulted
in a much more substantial focus on borders as a location to prevent the
unauthorized movement of people.
Just as we often imagine most borders as the sharp lines depicted on
maps, we also imagine that historically most borders were fenced and
fortified, but this is not the case. The older purposes of borders as
defensive military lines or administrative divisions do not necessitate a
wall or fence. Fences do not deter tanks and airplanes, and
administrative divisions between peaceful neighbors do not require an
expensive barrier. The changing purpose for borders is evident in the
sheer number of new barriers built in the past 20 years. Twenty-seven
have been built since 1998, compared with 11 during the entire Cold War
period from 1945 until 1990. Furthermore, several of those Cold War
barriers were quite short including the U.S. fence with Cuba at
Guantánamo Bay and the fence between Gibraltar and Spain.
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|
Guillermo Arias
/
AP file
Men peer through the U.S.-Mexico border fence in Tijuana, Mexico, earlier this year.
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Not only are the new barriers longer than in the past, but many are
built along peaceful borders. The significant characteristic that most
of these borders share is that they mark a sharp wealth discontinuity.5
For example, the average annual per capita GDP (in 2010 U.S. dollars)
of the countries that have built barriers since the fall of the Berlin
Wall is $14,067; the average for the countries on the other side of
these barriers is $2,801. The U.S. barrier on the Mexican border fits
this pattern. Although the Canadian border is longer and certainly more
porous (the Border Patrol estimated in 2009 that it had effective
control over less than 1% of the Canadian border versus 35% of the
Mexican border), the debates about fencing the border focused only on
Mexico.6 The United States’ per capita GDP in 2010 was $47,000, Canada’s was $39,000, and Mexico’s was $14,000.
The final internal factor that plays a role in the decision to build a
fence or wall on a political border is the fear that population
movements will irreversibly change the way of life inside the state. In
the United States, concerns about the threat that immigrant values pose
are as old as the country itself. At different points in history, the
Irish, the Chinese, and the Italians were all described as posing a
grave threat to a particular version of what it meant to be an
“American.” Today, these debates revolve around both Muslims and Latino
immigrants who, anti-immigrant activists argue, bring alternative social
codes and do not assimilate into the mainstream of U.S. society. The
fence on the border symbolizes the hardened and fixed borderline that
marks a clear distinction between the territories where particular
people belong.
The construction of a barrier on the border simultaneously
legitimates and intensifies the internal exclusionary practices of the
sovereign state. It legitimates exclusion by providing a material
manifestation of the abstract idea of sovereignty, which brings the
claim of territorial difference into being. The barrier also intensifies
these exclusionary practices, because once the boundary is marked and
“the container” of the state takes form, the perception of the
difference between the two places becomes stronger. This process is
evident in new restrictive immigration laws at the state level in
Alabama and Arizona as well as in the protests and vandalism directed
toward proposed Islamic cultural centers in New York and Tennessee. By
demonstrating sovereign control, the state simultaneously reifies
authority over that territory and defines the limits of the people that
belong there. These perceived differences then fuel more passionate
feelings of belonging to the in-group and distinction from the other on
the outside.
The U.S. fence on the Mexican border should be understood both in
terms of the enhanced enforcement capabilities of the government and in
the assertion of where the state has authority and who should be allowed
in the state’s territory. The United States built the barrier on the
U.S.-Mexico border to define its sovereign authority over its territory,
to protect the economic privileges of its population, and to protect a
particular way of life from other people who are perceived to have
different value systems. Rather than a barrier against terrorism and
cartel violence, it is a performance of the United States’ territory and
boundaries.
Reece Jones is Associate Professor and Chair of Graduate Studies
in the Department of Geography at the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa.
Parts of this article are excerpted from his new book, Border Walls: Security and the War on Terror in the United States, India, and Israel (Zed Books, 2012).
1. Joseph Werne, The Imaginary Line: A History of the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, 1848–57 (Texas Christian University Press, 2007).
2. Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the US-Mexico Boundary
(Routledge, 2010), 26–8; Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra! A History of the
US Border Patrol (University of California Press, 2010), 21–2.
3. Chad C. Haddal, Border Security: The Role of the Border Patrol (Washington DC: Congressional Research Services, 2010), 13.
4. John Agnew, Globalization and Sovereignty (Rowman &
Littlefield, 2009), 1–45; Richard E. Baldwin, Phillip Martin, and
Gianmarco Ottaviano, “Global Income Divergence, Trade, and
Industrialization: The Geography of Growth Take-Offs.” Journal of
Economic Growth 6, no. 1 (2001): 5–37.
5. Stéphane Rosière and Reece Jones, “Teichopolitics: Reconsidering Globalization Through the Role of Walls and Fences,” Geopolitics 17, no. 1 (2012): 217–34.
6. Todd Owen, Congressional Testimony, House Oversight and Government Reform Committee (July 9, 2009), 3.
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